The origins of problem-based Learning (PBL) probably go back to 1920s. Celestin Freinet, a primary school teacher, returned from World War I to his village in south-east France. Due to his injuries, he was too breathless to speak to the class for more than a few minutes, so he created a new system of Learning. This new system encouraged his pupils to take control of their own studies, communicate effectively, be more cooperative and evaluate their own progress. PBL, as currently employed in medical education, was first used and recognized at McMaster University, in Canada, in the late 1960s. PBL is an active form of Learning stimulated by, and focused around a clinical, community or scientific problem….

The problem of personal identity among others may stem from the following question—what does be the person that you are, from one day to the next, necessarily consist of? The diachronic problem of personal identity raises question on the necessary and sufficient conditions for the identity of the person over time. The synchronic problem is grounded in the question of what features or traits characterize a given person at one time. To answer these questions, John Locke discarded the soul and the body as necessary and sufficient substances for personal identity over time. He accepted consciousness as the only criterion for personal identity; the only thing capable of remaining the same and preserving personal identity through change. Though Locke’s argument is somewhat clear and coherent but what remains vague and incoherent is embedded in the question—what exactly is consciousness? How and why should it be the basis or criterion for the determination of personal identity? Using the method of critical analysis, I argue that Locke’s choice of consciousness as the determinant of personal identity, though quite novel, is incoherent and vague. Secondly, Locke had already presumed and anticipated clearly though fallaciously the very thing he wishes to substantiate. I therefore conclude that Locke’s argument is just another way of trying to escape but inadvertently prolonging the difficulty of apparently articulating a distinction between the psychological approach and physiological approach to the problem of personal identity. However, in my submission, I propose the concept of the “other” as alternative approach— a sort of an extrinsic-intrinsic approach to the problem of personal identity.

Background: problem-based Learning (PBL) is one of the most commonly used educational methods in medical schools of different countries. By working through this method, students think critically, generate ideas, and acquire the knowledge and skills required to become a doctor.Objectives: This study aimed to compare problem-based Learning with lecture-based Learning in the education of medical students.Materials and Methods: This crossover interventional study was conducted on 40 medical students in pediatric ward of Zanjan University of Medical Sciences. All of the students were enrolled in the study and divided into two groups by simple randomization. Then two topics in pediatric courses were chosen. One of the topics was presented as LBL for the first group and as PBL for the second group. The other topic was presented as PBL for the first group and as LBL for the second group.Results: The median score of the exam was higher in the intervention group compare to the control group for both topics. However, the difference was not statistically significant. Students preferred problem-based Learning over lecture-based Learning because of motivation boost, a higher quality of education, knowledge retention, class attractiveness, and practical use.Conclusions: Students’ knowledge was similar in both methods.